"Well, Ike, you are going to command Overlord."— President Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1943
In 1942, General George C. Marshall picked Eisenhower to represent the American Army in discussions with British leaders regarding military operations between America and England. Shortly afterward, Marshall selected Eisenhower over 366 senior officers to command Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of predominantly French-held North Africa. Both Eisenhower and General Mark W. Clark met with British political and military leaders, including General Bernard Law Montgomery, who was directing British amphibious operations. Montgomery was reportedly "irked" at having to meet the two "green" American generals. The notoriously demanding British commander disliked smoking in his presence, and Eisenhower was scolded for lighting a cigarette. Although he put it out, he was not pleased.
From 1942 through 1945, Eisenhower continually learned the complexities of managing a difficult military alliance. In November 1942, his inexperience was tested during Operation Torch, when 107,000 American and British troops landed at Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. Hostilities erupted between the Allies and elements of the 125,000 French troops loyal to the Vichy government. The landings should have pushed farther east into Tunisia to prevent German resupply efforts. The campaign also exposed the lack of preparation among American troops and officers, who at that point had not yet earned the respect of the British military.
At the Casablanca Conference, the British and Americans adopted the policy of "Unconditional Surrender," while also evaluating Eisenhower's leadership in North Africa. Although Eisenhower was the overall commander, he remained outranked by several British counterparts. President Roosevelt also declined Marshall's recommendation to promote Eisenhower to full general until greater success had been achieved against Germany.
Following the disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass, where approximately 3,000 American soldiers were killed or wounded and another 3,300 became prisoners of war, U.S. forces suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. II Corps commander General Lloyd Fredendall, who directed the battle from miles behind the front lines, was relieved and sent home in disgrace. Although there was speculation that Eisenhower himself would be removed, he instead appointed General George S. Patton to command II Corps. Patton immediately restored discipline and secured victory at El Guettar. By May 13, Allied forces captured approximately 250,000 German troops following the fall of Tunis and Bizerte.
As Eisenhower maintained command of the Allied coalition, British leaders often attempted to reduce him to a figurehead by surrounding him with British subordinates. There remained little respect for Eisenhower or the average American soldier before and during Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily. Commanding a force of 467,000 American, British, and Canadian troops, Eisenhower faced criticism from Marshall, who feared Americans were playing too subordinate a role.
In Sicily, Patton aggressively raced Montgomery toward the strategic objective of Messina. Under Patton's leadership, the Seventh Army captured Palermo, advanced along Sicily's northern coast, and executed successful amphibious operations against German and Italian forces. Sicily became a turning point for the American Army, proving its fighting ability while restoring pride against lingering British skepticism.
Eisenhower played little direct role in the Sicilian campaign, leading Marshall, Patton, and General Omar N. Bradley to worry that he favored the British too heavily. Although the capture of Messina was a significant victory, much of the German Army escaped with its weapons and equipment, which were later used in Italy. General Mark W. Clark's Fifth Army landed at Salerno despite concerns over his lack of battlefield experience. When Clark struggled to gain momentum, Eisenhower refused to relieve him, largely out of loyalty for Clark's earlier efforts to help advance his own career.
By late 1943, rumors circulated that Eisenhower might replace Marshall as Army Chief of Staff. President Roosevelt agonized over whether Marshall should instead command Operation Overlord. Roosevelt depended heavily on Marshall in Washington and admitted he would have "a difficult time sleeping at night" if Marshall left permanently for Europe. While Roosevelt recognized history might judge Marshall differently if he did not command D-Day, Marshall simply stated he would perform whatever duty the President assigned. Under pressure from Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin to establish a second front in France, Roosevelt appointed Eisenhower Supreme Commander on Dec. 7, 1943.
Marshall recalled Eisenhower to Washington, where he reunited with his wife, Mamie, for the first time in two years. He also met repeatedly with Roosevelt, spent time with his West Point cadet son John, and visited family in Kansas. Even during those reunions, Eisenhower remained consumed with planning D-Day. He smoked constantly, appeared increasingly irritable, and defended his relationship with driver Kay Summersby to Mamie.
Upon returning to England, Eisenhower informed Patton that the Third Army was being formed and would eventually come under his command. Weeks later, Patton became embroiled in the Knutsford Incident. Already under criticism for the infamous Slapping Incident in Sicily, Patton nearly lost his command. Eisenhower chose to retain him but warned that Marshall fully supported removing him if additional incidents occurred.
On June 5, 1944, Eisenhower met with airborne troops preparing for the invasion. Although he feared catastrophic casualties, the paratroopers assured him they were ready. Eisenhower then watched the beginning of the end of German domination in Western Europe. Following the brutal fighting in Normandy's hedgerows, Patton's Third Army broke through German defenses and relentlessly pushed eastward.
Despite the constant headaches Patton created, he rewarded Eisenhower with repeated victories. From relieving Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge to crossing the Rhine ahead of British forces, Patton justified Eisenhower's decision to keep him in combat. Eisenhower also had to manage the often difficult Montgomery during Operation Market Garden. After being lectured by the British field marshal, Eisenhower reminded him to remember who his "boss" was.
After witnessing liberated concentration camps such as Ohrdruf, Eisenhower became even more determined to destroy Hitler's Third Reich. On May 7, 1945, he addressed senior German military leaders, informing them they would be held accountable for crimes against peace. Echoing the concise style of General Ulysses S. Grant following Appomattox, Eisenhower simply announced:
"The mission of this Allied Force was fulfilled at 0241, local time, May 7th, 1945."
With those words, Eisenhower announced the end of the war in Europe. His military journey—from an inexperienced commander during Operation Torch to one of the greatest Allied commanders in history—was complete.