“The question,” he said, “is just how long can you keep this operation on the end of a limb and let it hang there.”— General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Sunday, June 4, 1944
These were the words of Eisenhower at the cusp of finally ordering the D-Day invasion of the French coast at Normandy. An extremely capable officer, Eisenhower’s path toward leadership was at times difficult and uncertain regarding his own future in the Army.
Eisenhower was always viewed as a respected military figure who waited decades before leading the 1942 Operation Torch landings in North Africa. He graduated from the famed “Class the Stars Fell On” at the United States Military Academy in 1915. A slightly older cadet, this newly appointed officer from Abilene, Kansas, graduated 61st out of 164 cadets. Remarkably, 59 of his classmates later became generals.
Although he was promoted to the rank of colonel during World War I and operated a tank training center at Camp Colt, Pennsylvania, the war ended just as Eisenhower was preparing to deploy from Fort Dix, New Jersey. Eisenhower believed that he was “cursed” because he never had the opportunity to fight overseas during the conflict.
During the interwar years, Eisenhower and General George S. Patton became close friends. Outside Fort Meade, the two officers once attempted to catch a thief who had been robbing local residents and were curious to see the man staring down the “barrels” of their “guns.”
As a major in 1925–1926, Eisenhower attended the Command and General Staff College, graduating first in a class of 245 officers. About two years later, he attended the Army War College and again finished at the top of his class. Eisenhower also traveled with General John J. Pershing back to Europe to document American combat operations in France.
Eisenhower was personable and well-liked. A respected athlete, he coached many Army football teams and built a family life with his wife, Mamie. Tragedy struck when his son, Doud “Icky” Eisenhower, died of scarlet fever on January 2, 1921, at the age of three. Although John S.D. Eisenhower was later born, the family never fully recovered from the loss.
Patton introduced Eisenhower to Major General Fox Conner, a highly talented officer who became one of the most important influences on Eisenhower’s military development. Conner taught him the importance of understanding the broader picture of command and strategy.
Eisenhower also traveled with General Pershing through the American Battle Monuments Commission to study World War I battlefields. He carefully learned about the battles, the terrain, and the people involved—knowledge that would prove invaluable roughly twenty years later.
In 1932, during the height of the Great Depression, approximately 15,000 World War I veterans descended upon Washington, D.C., seeking payment of bonuses promised for their wartime service: $1.25 for every day served overseas and $1.00 for every day served stateside. However, those bonuses would not be paid until 1945.
Many veterans brought their families and traveled on foot to the nation’s capital. Most settled in Anacostia Flats, where they built makeshift shelters from discarded lumber, tin, and straw. Living in hot, unsanitary conditions and often lacking adequate food, they lobbied government officials for compensation they believed they had earned.
More than a decade before the GI Bill provided assistance to returning World War II veterans, these former soldiers received little government support. Violence erupted when President Herbert Hoover ordered Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur to disperse the encampments with the expectation that the veterans would return home.
MacArthur, believing the protesters were radicals, used cavalry, infantry, and armored units against men who had served under him during World War I. A famous photograph shows Eisenhower standing beside MacArthur and reminding him that he was misinterpreting Hoover’s orders. Eisenhower witnessed firsthand one of the most painful domestic episodes ever endured by American veterans.
There was a stark contrast between MacArthur’s commanding presence and Eisenhower’s practical, approachable leadership style. Before the Normandy invasion, Eisenhower drafted a message praising the courage of the troops and emphasizing their role in ending Nazi tyranny. He also prepared a second statement accepting full responsibility should the invasion fail.
Many of MacArthur’s speeches had been written by Eisenhower, who had developed into a brilliant staff officer. He expanded his expertise in planning, organization, and the coordination of complex military operations. The demands of the job were so intense that Eisenhower was eventually hospitalized with severe intestinal problems brought on by stress.
Preparing for potential threats, Eisenhower studied the geography and terrain of the Philippine Islands in detail. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall directed Eisenhower to determine whether supplies and reinforcements could be sent to the Philippines.
Before being appointed to command Operation Torch, Eisenhower had many friends among both American and Filipino forces who later suffered during the Bataan Death March. He informed Marshall that nothing could realistically be done to counter Japanese military strength in the Philippines during the opening stages of the war. Many of those soldiers endured years of brutal captivity until the war ended in 1945.
By 1936, Eisenhower had been promoted to lieutenant colonel, but he still worried about his long-term future in the Army. While serving in the Philippines, he worked closely with President Manuel L. Quezon and gained valuable experience interacting with senior political leaders.
These experiences later helped him work effectively with Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Charles de Gaulle, and numerous American governors, mayors, and members of Congress.
The assignment in the Philippines was difficult for the Eisenhower family. Mamie disliked the tropical heat, heavy rains, and insects, while John attended boarding school on the island of Luzon and was only a few years away from entering West Point.
One of Eisenhower’s favorite hobbies developed during this period: flying. He often piloted his own aircraft between islands while carrying out official duties.
The assignment also strained Eisenhower’s relationship with MacArthur. Tensions escalated over plans for a major military parade through Manila. President Quezon was displeased with aspects of the event, and MacArthur blamed Eisenhower for the resulting problems.
During one heated exchange, Eisenhower reportedly told MacArthur:
“General, all you’re saying is that I’m a liar, and I am not a liar, and so I’d like to go back to the United States right away.”
Eisenhower later returned to the United States for a three-month visit, allowing him to see family and friends while enjoying a respite from MacArthur. During this period, he was tasked with purchasing American military equipment for the Philippines.
The Neutrality Acts enacted by Congress and enforced by Roosevelt made acquiring weapons extremely difficult, although some older aircraft were eventually transferred. Eisenhower likely explored opportunities for reassignment that would remove him from MacArthur’s direct supervision.
Although both men were brilliant military leaders who achieved historic victories, they were complete opposites in personality and leadership style.
Years later, Eisenhower criticized Patton for failing to fully understand the larger reasons World War II was being fought in Europe. Eisenhower had witnessed humanitarian concerns firsthand while serving in the Philippines. At one point, he was even offered a lucrative position with a Jewish relief organization helping rescue European Jews and relocate them to safe areas in Asia.
In April 1945, Eisenhower’s expression reportedly revealed his disgust and sorrow during his first visit to Ohrdruf Concentration Camp.
When World War II began in Europe on September 1, 1939, Eisenhower still hoped to remain in the Army but believed he might eventually retire without ever participating in another major conflict. Leaving the Philippines in December 1939, he remained a lieutenant colonel determined to return home and secure a command position leading soldiers.
Next week, a second article will focus on Eisenhower’s rise before and after Pearl Harbor.